In Hindu Vedic belief, "horse-gods, twin sons of the sun and a mare. The physicians of the gods...."(O'Flaherty, p.340.)

SOMA AND THE MEAD OF POETRY: Magical Liquids in Indic and Norse Mythology by Dustin Tranberg

     The connections between the Indic and Norse myths have
proven useful in understanding each, especially since the work
of Georges Dumezil. In this paper, I hope to look at a few
similarities in detail, and to use them to illuminate other
aspects of the two mythos.

I. SOMA AND THE "MEAD OF POETRY"

     The Vedic soma and the "mead of poetry" found in the Prose
Edda, share several qualities. For example, both are connected
to the idea of "pressing," as of pressing the juice from a fruit.
In the hymns of the Rig Veda, soma is pressed out in bowls.<1>
The Icelandic Skaldskaparmal tells of the manufacture of the
mead of poetry from the blood of a being named Kvasir <2>, which
name "has often been associated with Danish 'kvase' (to squeeze
to extract juice), [and] with English 'quash'...."<3>

     A more involved similarity between the two liquids is a motif
found in many parts of the Indo-European world, that of the inspir-
ational drink which is retrieved by an eagle (or falcon), often
from a mountain where it has been hidden by enemies of the gods.
This retrieval is usually marked in the Indic and Norse traditions
by a close pursuit of the bird by these enemies.

     Indra is the recipient of the soma in a number of Vedic hymns.
The eagle variously bears Indra on his back or simply brings the
soma to him, and in one case has a tail feather shot off by the
soma's guardian.<4> The Kathaka Samhita reports that Indra
himself took falcon form to steal the life-restoring "ambrosia"
from the demons.<5>

     The Norse God Odinn is said to have escaped from a giant's
mountain, in eagle form, with the mead of poetry. The giant also
takes eagle form and pursues Odinn so closely that Odinn, in his
haste, spills some of the mead.<6>

     The mead of poetry does not, however, provide the immunity
from aging that soma does. This function is filled by the apples
of the Norse goddess Idunn, wife of the god of poetry, Bragi.
We see that she and her apples are taken on very much the same
sort of journey as the soma and the mead of poetry. According
to the Skaldskaparmal, after being lured out from Asgard on
a pretext by the trickster Loki, she and her apples are seized
by the giant Thjazi, who had taken the form of an eagle. The
gods, quickly growing old, deduce that Loki is to blame and coerce
him into rescuing her. He changes into a falcon (using the goddess
Freyja's falcon coat) and rescues Idunn, changing her into a nut
for the journey back. Thjazi, however, quickly pursues them back
to Asgard, but is entrapped by a fire created by the waiting gods,
and slain.<7> Both the mead of poetry and the goddess of the
apples of immortality are carried about by eagles in the same
manner as the poetry-inspiring, life-prolonging soma.

     Furthermore, both the soma and the mead of poetry follow
a "law of threes." When they are hidden from the gods, each is
hidden in three parts. Once retrieved by the gods, each is con-
sumed in three parts as well.

     The Skaldskaparmal tells us that the mead of poetry was
manufactured from the blood of Kvasir, killed by two dwarfs:

These called him aside for a word in private and
killed him, letting his blood run into two crocks
and one kettle. The kettle was called Odrorir, but
the crocks were known as Son and Bodn. They mixed
his blood with honey, and it became the mead which
makes whoever drinks of it a poet or a scholar. The
dwarfs told the AEsir [the gods] that Kvasir had
choked with learning....<8>

The dwarfs then kill a giant and his wife, but the giants' son,
Suttung, captures the dwarfs, who "begged Suttung to spare their
lives offering him as compensation for his father the precious
mead, and that brought about their reconciliation. Suttung took
the mead home and hid it in a place called Hnitbjorg and he appoin-
ted his daughter Gunnlod as its guardian."<9> It is from this
hiding place that Odinn will retrieve the mead, by seducing Sut-
tung's daughter, Gunnlod.

     The soma, likewise, is hidden from the gods in three parts.
In one hymn of the Rig Veda , it is hidden while in its trad-
itional form of butter:

In the cow the gods found the butter that had been
divided into three parts and hidden by the Panis.
Indra brought forth one form, Surya one, and from
the very substance of Vena they fashioned one.<10>

The Panis who hide the soma are said in other hymns to hide cattle
in mountain caves<11>, much like the giant Suttung's mountain.
The similarity is made still closer if we follow R.L. Griffith's
note to the hymn above, which states that Vena is "the seer iden-
tified with the sun-bird."<12> If Vena is indeed a seer who is
made into soma, it places him very closely in concept to the wise
Kvasir, made into the mead of poetry.<13> This speculation aside,
the two drinks are indisputably hidden from the gods in three
parts.

     Once hidden, the inspirational drink is inevitably found
by the gods, and one god in each pantheon stands out as the prin-
cipal consumer. Even as the drinks were hidden by threes, they
are consumed by threes.

     Indra is the premier soma-drinker of the Vedic gods.<14>
To empower himself before his greatest act in the myths, the slay-
ing of the serpent Vrtra, "he took the Soma for himself and drank
the extract from the three bowls in the three-day Soma ceremony."
<15> Three vessels and three days figure exactly into Odinn's
consumption of the mead of poetry as well.

     Odinn, like Indra, is a great drinker. Although Thor shows
quite a capacity for drinking in Thrymskvida and the tale of
Utgardr-Loki, the mead of poetry is Odinn's special province.
Odinn (with Bragi) is the god of poetry, and furthermore, Odinn
is said in both Gylfaginning and Grimnismal never to eat,
existing only on wine.<16> His acquisition of the mead of poetry
from the three vessels of the giant Suttung took three days. After
penetrating the mountain where Suttung's daughter Gunnlod guarded
the mead, he:

came to where Gunnlod was, and slept with her for
three nights, and then she promised him three drinks
of the mead. At his first drink he drank up all
that was in Odrorir, at his second, Bodn, and at
his third, Son -- and then he had finished all the
mead. Then he changed himself into an eagle and
flew away at top-speed.<17>

Three nights is also the period of time which the god Heimdallr,
as Rig, was supposed to have spent in the beds of the mothers
of each class of humans (thrall, freeman, and earl) when he fathered
the human race, according to the poem Rigsthula. Lee M. Hollander,
in his translation of Rigsthula, suggests that three days was
the standard stay for a guest.<18>

     Odinn's devouring of all of the sacred mead in three drinks
is sharply reminiscent of Vishnu's three steps, in which he encom-
passes the universe. It is similarly interesting to consider
the tale from the Satapatha-Brahmana in which the gods regain
the universe from the demons by enclosing Vishnu, who is the sac-
rifice, reclaiming the altar and therefore, by analogy, the uni-
verse.<19> If the mead and the soma are related, then perhaps,
in collecting all of the mead of poetry in himself, Odinn is also
reclaiming a holy sacrifice, and therefore the universe.

     Soma and the mead of poetry figure strongly in the relations
between sets of gods within each pantheon. Specifically, the
gods who represent Dumezil's third function, fertility, in both
pantheons, have their integration into the divine society inex-
tricably entwined with the inspirational drinks. These gods are,
of course, the Norse Vanir, and the Indic Nasatyas (or Ashvins).

II. THE VANIR AND THE NASATYAS

     Dumezil noted the correspondences between these groups of
fertility deities in his Gods of the Ancient Northmen.<20> In
his analysis, which is convincing and rests on its own merits,
he focuses almost exclusively on simple fertility functions of
these deities: "health, youth, fertility, and happiness."<21>

     Here, I wish to explore some further similarities, delving
into the areas of horse-associations, sun-associations, incest
among siblings, and the status of these third function figures
as priests among the gods.

     The Ashvins have very strong associations with horses. Their
very name means "the two with horses."<22> Their mother conceived
them while she was in horse form.<23> They are even said to have
the heads of horses.<24> Evidence for such a connection to the
Vanir is not as multiplex, but is paradoxically one of the few
solid pieces of information we have about actual religious prac-
tice in the corpus. The horse was sacred to Freyr, and figured
importantly in his cult, with sacred horses said to belong to
the deity.<25>

     In associations with the sun, a similar pattern emerges.
The Ashvins are the sons of Vivasvat, the sun, and thus, their
solar connection cannot be denied.<26> Freyr, again, must serve
as our connection with the rest of the Vanir this time. He con-
trols the weather, not unusual for a fertility god, and it is
said of him that "he decides when the sun shall shine."<27>

     Both groups of gods have sexual relations between siblings.
The Ashvins are said to have married their sister Surya, the daug-
hter of Surya, the sun (who is the same as Vivasvat).<28> (In
another hymn, however, they are said to be unsuccessful suitors
of her.<29>) Further, there exists another who is both brother
and lover to the goddess Surya, Pushan.<30> The incestuous habits
of the Vanir are well-known. "While Njorth lived with the Vanir
he had his sister as wife, because that was the custom among them."
<31> Lokasenna also accuses Freyr and Freyja, and Njord and his
sister, of incestuous relations.<32>

     Finally, the two sets of gods occupy a most curious position,
that of priests among the gods. "Othin appointed Njorth and Frey
to be priests for the sacrificial offerings, and they were 'diar'
[gods] among the AEsir. Freya was the daughter of Njorth. She
was the priestess at the sacrifices."<33> Likewise, the Ashvins,
according to the Satapatha-Brahmana, officiate over the sacrifices
performed by the gods.<34>

     Many other figures serve priestly functions in the Indic
tradition, having to do with the sacrifice, and some of them ex-
hibit Vanir-like characteristics. Agni, as the sacrificial fire
itself, is described as a priest <35>, and, in his form as the
Child of the Waters, is presented as a horse, who, living deep
in the water, possesses great riches.<36> (This is strikingly
similar to Njord, the Vanir ocean god who is proverbially wealthy.
<37>)

     Purusha himself, the god who is the cosmos, exercises priestly
functions in that he is sacrifice, sacrificer, and recipient of
the sacrifice. <38> In doing do, he resembles not so much the
Vanir as he does the Norse figures of Ymir and Odinn. Odinn,
like Purusha, sacrifices himself to himself, and gains power in
this fashion.<39> Ymir is like Purusha in that the cosmos is
created through his sacrifice and dismemberment.

III. KVASIR, MADA, GULLVEIG, AND KACA

     In his Gods of the Ancient Northmen, Dumezil compares the
figures of Kvasir and Mada as intercessories of sorts in the int-
egration of the third function fertility deities into the divine
society. He noted that Mada, "drunkenness," is created in order
to force the integration of the Ashvins into the gods' sacrifice,
while Kvasir is created as a result of the successful integration.
Mada is then divided into four parts that are harmful to man, and
Kvasir into three parts that help man and the gods.<40>

     Gullveig is an enigmatic figure in the Poetic Edda's
Voluspa, who seems to be at the root of the conflict between
AEsir and Vanir due to her ill-treatment at the hands of the AEsir.
Dumezil sees in her an attack on the AEsir by the Vanir, as a sort
of "secret weapon," the power of money, third function wealth
in a negative mode. Her name is often etymologized as the "insob-
riety of gold," or "drunkenness of gold," reflecting the corrupting
power of money.<41> Her appearance in the poems is as follows:

     I ween the first war     in the world was this,
when the gods Gullveig     gashed with their spears,
and in the hall     of Har [Odinn] burned her --
three times burned they     the thrice reborn,
ever and anon:     even now she liveth.

Heith she was hight    where to houses she came,
the wise seeress,     and witchcraft plied --
cast spells where she could,     cast spells on the mind:
to wicked women     she was welcome ever.<42>

She has often been equated with Freyja, by Turville-Petre among
others, due to her witch-like character and use of seidr-type
magic. (Seidr was supposed to have been taught to the AEsir by
the Vanir, and particularly to Odinn by Freyja.<43> It has etym-
ologies which link it to the English word "seethe," suggesting
yet another (and related?) magical liquid.<44>)

     Her strange story may be partially illuminated by that of
Kaca, a Mahabharata character who goes to the demons to get the
secret of reviving the dead from them. He is killed three times,
by dismemberment, pulverization, and burning, and each time is
restored to life by the demons' brahman, under whose tutelage
he is studying. The third time he is killed, he is burned to
ashes and mixed in wine, and given to the brahman to drink. It
is this final time which necessitates that the brahman give him
the knowledge of the chant.<45>

     Kaca exhibits an almost bewildering display of similarities
to characters in both mythos. He seduces and abandons the secret-
holder's daughter, like Odinn. He is dismembered like many Indic
characters, notably Purusha, Mada, and Agni, as well as Ymir and
Kvasir. He is pulverized and mixed with liquid, like Kvasir.
He is killed three times, like Gullveig. He is burned to death,
like Gullveig, and perhaps like Soma himself. His ashes are mixed
with wine, and drunk, and it is this form, the alcoholic drink,
which is successful in obtaining the secret.<45>

     In conclusion, Gullveig is often assumed to be the "drunken-
ness of gold," gold-lust, but in a poem (Voluspa) in which Kvasir
is, after all, absent, she may be his counterpart, a goddess wise
in brewing spells who cannot be killed (especially in a fire),
because she IS the "golden drink," Soma-like, and therefore
immortal.

12/10/92

NOTES:

1) Griffith, R.L., The Hymns of the Rg Veda Translated with a
    Popular Commentary. (1963) 9.74, 10.94: pp.121-6, in
    A Reader in Indian Mythology, S.J. Sutherland, ed.

2) Snorri Sturluson, Skaldskaparmal, in the Prose Edda, trans.
    Jean I.Young. (University of California Press, 1954) p.100.

3) Turville-Petre, E.O.G., Myth and Religion of the North.
    (Greenwood Press, 1964, 1975) p.40.

4) Rg Veda , 4.26-7: pp.128-31; 4.18.13: p.143.

5) Kathaka Samhita, in Hindu Myths, Wendy O'Flaherty, trans.
    (Penguin, 1975) p.281.

6) Skaldskaparmal, p.102.

7)        "         pp.98-9.

8)        "         p.100.

9)        "         p.101.

10) Rg Veda , 4.58.4: p.127.

11)     "     10.108: pp.156-8.

12)     "     4.58 n.4: p.128.

13) Another source, Pratap Chandra Roy's translation of the
     Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa, vol.VIII
     (Oriental Publishing Co., Calcutta), gives Vena as an evil
     king killed by rishis, who then pierce his right thigh and
     hand which produce, respectively, a wicked race of dark
     non-Aryans (Nishadas), and a godlike king (Parthu).
     (Mhb XII,59) This is immediately reminiscent not only of
     Purusha, whose body parts become different classes, but of
     the Norse Ymir, a very similar cosmic progenitor whose legs
     produced trolls or giants when he was slain.

14) Rg Veda, 8.14.15: p.160; 2.12.13: p.162.

15)     "     1.32.3: p.149.

16) Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, in the Prose Edda, trans.
     Jean I. Young. (University of California Press, 1954) p.63.

     Grimnismal, St.19, in The Poetic Edda, trans. Hollander,
     Lee M. (University of Texas Press, 1962) p.57.

17) Skaldskaparmal, p.102.

18) Hollander, p.121, n.7.

19) Satapatha-Brahmana, in O'Flaherty, pp.177-8.

20) Dumezil, Georges, Gods of the Ancient Northmen. (University
     of California Press, 1973) pp.16-18, etc.

21) Dumezil, p.16.

22) Goldman, Robert P., lectures on Hindu Mythlogy 9/25/92.

23) Markandeya Purana, in O'Flaherty, p.69.

24) O'Flaherty, p.56.

25) Turville-Petre, pp.167-8.

26) Brhaddevata, in O'Flaherty, p.61, and Markandeya Purana,
     in O'Flaherty, p.69.

27) Gylfaginning, p.52.

28) Rg Veda, 1.116.17: p.183, and 1.116 n.14: p.185.

29)     "     10.85 n.7: p.272.

30)     "     10.85 n.13: p.272.

31) Ynglingasaga, Ch.4, in Dumezil, p.10.

32) Lokasenna, Sts.32 and 36, in Hollander, p.97.

33) Ynglingasaga, Ch.4, in Dumezil, p.10.

34) Satapatha-Brahmana IV,1,5,15 in Julius Eggeling, The
     Satapatha-Brahmana According to the text of the Madhyandina
     School, in A Reader in Indian Mythology.

35) Rg Veda, 1.26: pp.99-101.

36)     "     2.35: pp.104-107.

37) Gylfaginning, p.51.

38) Rg Veda, 10.90.16: p.31; 10.81.5: p.35; 1.164.50: p.81.

39) Havamal, St.138, in Hollander, p.36.

40) Dumezil, pp.22-3.

41) Dumezil, p.24.

     Turville-Petre, p.159.

42) Voluspa, Sts.21-2, in Hollander, p.4.

43) Turville-Petre, p.159.

44) Lindow, John, lectures on Scandinavian Myth and Religion 10/91.

45) Mahabharata, in O'Flaherty, pp.282-9.